Just after French president Emmanuel Macron returns from his state visit to China, the German foreign minister Johann Wadephul will make his delayed visit to Beijing after all. This is as good an occasion as any to compare the two major powers in the European Union.
Recently I wrote about Xi Jinping’s travels. I once again use my database of diplomatic visits to and from China based on what the official Foreign Ministry website lists on its Diplomatic Schedule (外事日程). In contrast to my Dutch post on the Netherlands, both countries have too many visits to list all.
Summary:
- Comparing the Hu and Xi eras, France has overtaken Germany in relative terms. Although Germany had a post-Merkel dip under Scholz/Baerbock, its visit total is constant over both terms. The difference is the absolute increase in Sino-French engagement.
- The quality of German engagement is lower than France’s. Comparing the overall trends of both countries, we see a relatively similar pattern. Yet, France seems to be a more consistent partner overall, in terms of the volume and regularity of Beijing’s attention. The disparity in 2025 visits was exceptional. Chinese and French presidents have always exchanged more visits. Germany’s last state visits were in 2017 (to China) and 2018 (from China).
- Chancellor Merkel and President Macron appear to have had the most intense relationship with China of the two countries’ leaders. However, one should not ignore the era of Nicolas Sarkozy. Not only did President Sarkozy go to China more than Macron, his Prime Ministers and Foreign Ministers also went more than their Macron-era successors. Germany never regained the prominence it had under Merkel.
- Germany’s use for Beijing as proponent of economic ties with China peaked under Merkel. Li Keqiang and Yang Jiechi went to Germany much more than to France. However, strategic autonomy-proponent France gets more attention at the presidential level. Post-Merkel, Paris now receives Chinese Prime Ministers and Foreign Ministers as often as Berlin, while both President and Vice President go to France more than to Germany.
I spend my days reading to explain contemporary China and Taiwan to you. You can support me on ‘Buy Me A Coffee’ to contribute towards my never-ending subscriptions and book purchases! 🙏🏻
First a general overview. Under President Hu Jintao, Germany was more popular than France. Under President Xi Jinping this has reversed. Adjusting for Hu’s 2 versus Xi’s 2.5 terms so far, Paris seems to have overtaken Berlin mainly because of an absolute increase of Sino-French engagement. Incoming German visits remain constant and visits to Germany have in fact increased substantially. Together with the EU institutions both countries form the clear top-3 of EU member states’ total visits. The overall trend in the above graph of totals is not too dissimilar for both countries, with the exception of 2025.
| outgoing visits from China under Hu Jintao | incoming visits to China under Hu Jintao | ||
| Germany | 18 | Germany | 17 |
| France | 14 | European Commission | 17 |
| European Commission | 11 | France | 14 |
| outgoing visits from China under Xi Jinping | incoming visits to China under Xi Jinping | ||
| France | 33 | France | 32 |
| Germany | 28 | Germany | 20 |
| European Commission | 15 | European Commission | 16 |
Chancellors and Presidents
The now infamous Gerhard Schröder (SPD) went on 5.5 trips to China as German Chancellor, including 3 under Hu Jintao: one ‘visits China’ (访华), one ‘working visit’ (工作访问), and one ‘official visit’ (正式访问). The half visit under Jiang Zemin was a curtailed visit on 12 May 1999 as the first leader of a NATO country following the US bombardment of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade.
Angela Merkel (CDU) is champion among Germany’s heads of government with 12 trips. Only one was no ‘official visit’. Merkel was unique in the warmth of her relationship with China, reflected in regular trips that mostly included an additional city outside of Beijing. She also received an important visit from Vice President Xi Jinping in 2009. Her successor Olaf Scholz (SPD) went on 2 official visits. Current Chancellor Friedrich Merz (CDU) still has to go, though reporting suggests he will travel to Beijing early 2026.
President Jacques Chirac lists 3 trips to China, one under Jiang and two state visits under Hu. Nicolas Sarkozy was listed for 4 state visits (国事访问) on the MFA’s schedule, excluding an additional trip to Nanjing for a G20/IMF seminar. François Hollande got 2 state visits and attended (出席) 1 G20 summit in Hangzhou. Emmanuel Macron ties with Sarkozy for 4 state visits to China. Like Merkel, both Macron and Hollande usually added one city outside Beijing to their schedules in China.
Other French and German visitors
Unlike the German leaders, the French leaders are presidents, which means they can more easily get a full state visit. Germany has had only 5 state visits since Hu took office, of which only Merkel-era Horst Köhler (CDU) went twice. Given that they were in 2003, 2007, 2010, 2016, and 2018, one would have expected a state visit by now.
With the upcoming Wadephul visit, all German foreign ministers from the selected period have visited China at least once. Frank-Walter Steinmeier (SPD) went the most often. Combining his two non-consecutive terms, he went 4 times. Guido Westerwelle (FDP) went thrice, Annalena Baerbock (Grünen) twice, the rest only once. The Merkel era saw most traffic.
Paris changes its foreign ministers more frequently than Berlin. Yet, most still went to China at least once. The only exceptions were in the Hu era, when ministers Dominique de Villepin, Michel Barnier, and Michèle Alliot-Marie did not go. Traffic was especially frequent under Hollande, when Laurent Fabius went 5 times and Jean-Marc Ayrault thrice. Under Macron, presidential diplomatic advisor Emmanuel Bonne is a favoured messenger instead.
French Prime Ministers used to go relatively frequently, but no Prime Minister has visited since Edouard Philippe went early in the Macron era. Former Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin continues to visit China frequently as an old ‘friend of China’ – a Chinese counterpart to Russia’s Schröder.
Chinese visitors
| President | date | country | type | forum |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Xi Jinping | 05-05-2024 | France | state visit | – |
| Xi Jinping | 24-03-2019 | France | state visit | – |
| Xi Jinping | 04-07-2017 | Germany | state visit | 12th G20 summit; BRICS Informal Summit |
| Xi Jinping | 29-11-2015 | France | attends | Paris Climate Change Conference Opening |
| Xi Jinping | 28-03-2014 | Germany | state visit | – |
| Xi Jinping | 25-03-2014 | France | state visit | – |
| Hu Jintao | 02-11-2011 | France | attends | 6th G20 Summit |
| Hu Jintao | 04-11-2010 | France | state visit | – |
| Hu Jintao | 06-06-2007 | Germany | attends | G8 Leaders’ Dialogue with Developing Countries |
| Hu Jintao | 11-11-2005 | Germany | state visit | – |
| Hu Jintao | 26-01-2004 | France | state visit | – |
| Hu Jintao | 31-05-2003 | France | attends | Informal South-North Leaders Dialogue Meeting |
France and Germany fulfil two special roles in the eye of Chinese diplomacy. Berlin is useful on economic policy, due to the (perceived) interest of its industry in maintaining trade with China. This attitude gave Merkel such a warm reception on her frequent Beijing visits, which she thought essential to keep up with China for the sake of Europe’s declining economic competitiveness.
Germany, however, remains Atlantic in orientation. That attitude contrasts with the French dream of European strategic autonomy, something which has always endeared it among Chinese officials and thinkers dreaming of a separate European pole. That Chinese dream took a hit after the eurocrisis, but has gained in strength again somewhat under Xi and thanks to Trump.
| Germany | France | |
|---|---|---|
| Xi Jinping | 3 | 4 |
| Hu Jintao | 2 | 4 |
| Han Zheng | 0 | 2 |
| Wang Qishan | 1 | 1 |
| Li Qiang | 1 | 1 |
| Li Keqiang | 5 | 1 |
| Wang Yi | 10 | 9 |
| Yang Jiechi | 7 | 2 |
Hu Jintao went on 2 state visits to France and 1 to Germany. He additionally attended 1 summit in each country. Xi Jinping has been on 3 state visits to France and 2 state visits to Germany, in addition to 1 summit in Paris. The visits to France are relatively evenly spaced out. In contrast, Germany got them close together in 2004 and 2007, and 2014 and 2017. Since then, no Chinese leader has been to Germany.
The difference in focus is clear when we look at the Vice President, Prime Minister and Foreign Minister/State Councillor. Foreign Minister Wang Yi is relatively even. But differences show elsewhere. Xi went to Germany but not France as Vice President. Wang Qishan went to both, but current Vice President Han Zheng has been to France twice and Germany never.
The French advantage is relatively recent. Mostly due to Merkel, the Chancellor’s protocol counterpart Prime Minister Li Keqiang went to Germany 5 times as compared to France once. Wang’s predecessor Yang Jiechi went to Germany 7 times, contrasting with 2 visits to France. Current Foreign Minister Wang Yi has been to both almost the same number of times.
Leave a Reply